A Study of Buddhism in Burma (3rd Century BC to 13th century A.D)

Chapter ( I ):
Introduction
(1) 1.Geography of Burma:
Burma, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world.
It is bordered to the northwest by Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh of India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with Tibet to the north and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 kilometres (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Burma has 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter .
In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma . Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas . The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers . The Ayeyarwady River, Burma's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains . The majority of Burma's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Climate:
Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 °C (89.6 °F) .
The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the country. Other trees indigenous to the region include acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, michelia champaca coconut and betel palm and rubber has been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land . The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards, occur sparsely in Burma. In upper Burma, there are rhinoceros, wild buffalo, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, herons, and paddy birds. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources .
(1) 2. History of Burma:
After the First Burmese War, the Ava kingdom ceded the provinces of Manipur, Tenassarim, and Arakan to the British. Rangoon and southern Burma were incorporated into British India in 1853. All of Burma came directly or indirectly under British India in 1886 after the Third Burmese War and the fall of Mandalay . Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. The country became independent from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, as the "Union of Burma".
It became the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" on 4 January 1974, before reverting to the "Union of Burma" on 23 September 1988. On 18 June 1989, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) adopted the name "Union of Myanmar" for English transliteration. This controversial name change in English, while accepted in the UN and in many countries, is not recognised by opposition groups and by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States .
Early history:
Archaeological evidence suggests that civilization in the region which now forms Burma is quite old. The oldest archaeological find was of cave paintings and a Holocene assemblage in a hunter-gatherer cave site in Padah Lin in Shan State .
The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid-900s BC were dominant in southern Burma .
The Tibeto-Burman speaking Pyu arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which Sri Ksetra was the most powerful – in central Ayeyarwady valley. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland trade route between India and China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century A.D when the powerful kingdom of Nanzhao (in present-day Yunnan) invaded the Ayeyarwady valley several times.
Bagan (1044–1287):
Tibeto-Burman speaking Burmans, or the Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day Yunnan's Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century A.D. Filling the power gap left by the Pyu, the Burmans established a small kingdom centred in Bagan in 849. But it was not until the reign of King Anawrahta (1044–1077) that Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma.
After Anawrahta's capture of the Mon capital of Thaton in 1057, the Burmans adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The Burmese script was created, based on the Mon script, during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084–1112). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and pagodas throughout the country – many of which can still be seen today.
Bagan's power slowly waned in 13th century. Kublai Khan's Mongol forces invaded northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan's over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and its periphery was over.
Small kingdoms (1287–1531):
The Mongols could not stay for long in the searing Ayeyarwady valley. But the Tai-Shan people from Yunnan who came down with the Mongols fanned out to the Ayeyarwady valley, Shan states, Laos, Siam and Assam, and became powerful players in Southeast Asia.
The Bagan Empire was irreparably broken up into several small kingdoms:
The Burman kingdom of Ava or Innwa (1364–1555), the successor state to three smaller kingdoms founded by Burmanised Shan kings, controlling Upper Burma (without the Shan states)
The Mon kingdom of Hanthawady Pegu or Bago (1287–1540), founded by a Mon-ised Shan King Wareru (1287–1306), controlling Lower Burma (without Taninthayi).
The Rakhine kingdom of Mrauk U (1434–1784), in the west.
Several Shan states in the Shan hills in the east and the Kachin hills in the north while the north-western frontier of present Chin Hills still disconnected yet.
This period was characterised by constant warfare between Ava and Bago, and to a lesser extent, Ava and the Shans. Ava briefly controlled Rakhine (1379–1430) and came close to defeating Bago a few times, but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Nevertheless, Burmese culture entered a golden age. Hanthawady Bago prospered. Bago's Queen Shin Saw Bu (1453–1472) raised the gilded Shwedagon Pagoda to its present height.
(1 ) 3.What is Buddhism?
The Buddha has passed away, but the sublime Teaching, which He expounded during His long and successful ministry and which He unreservedly bequeathed to humanity, still exists in its pristine purity. Although the Master has left no written records of His Teachings, His disciples preserved them, by committing to memory and transmitting them orally from generation to generation.
Three months after the Death of the Buddha, in the eighth year of King Ajātasattu’s reign, 500 pre-eminent Arahants concerned with preserving the purity of the Doctrine held Convocation at Rājagaha to rehearse it. The Venerable Ānanda Thera, the Buddha’s beloved attendant who had the special privilege and honour of hearing the discourses from the Buddha Himself, and the Venerable Upāli Thera were chosen to answer questions about the Dhamma (Doctrine) and the Vinaya (Discipline) respectively.
This First Council compiled and arranged in its present form the Pāli Tipitaka, which represents the entire body of the Buddha’s Teaching. Two other Councils of Arahants were held 100 and 236 years later respectively, again to rehearse the Word of the Buddha because attempts were being made to pollute the pure Teaching. About 83 BC., during the reign of the pious Simhala King Vatta Gāmani Abhaya , a Council of Arahants was held, and the Tipitaka was, for the first time in the history of Buddhism, committed to writing at Aluvihāra in Ceylon.
The word Tipitaka (Tripitaka in Sanskrit) means three Basket. They are the Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), the Basket of Discourses ( Sutta Pitaka ) and the Basket of Ultimate Doctrine (Abhidhamma Pitaka).
The Vinaya Pitaka, which is regarded as the sheet anchor of the Holy Order, deals mainly with the rules and regulations of the Order of Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis (nuns).
The Vinaya Pi¥aka consists of the following five books:
1. Pārājika Pāli Vibhanga (Major Offences)
2. Pācittiya Pāli (Minor Offences)
3. Mahāvagga Pāli Khandaka (Greater Section)
4. Cullavagga Pāli (Lesser Section)
5. Parivāra Pāli (Epitome of the Vinaya).

The Sutta Pi¥aka consists chiefly of instructive discourse delivered by the Buddha to both the Sangha and the laity on various occasion.
The Sutta Pitaka consists of the following five Nikāyas (Collections):
1 Dīgha Nikāya (Collection of Long Discourses)
2 Majjhima Nikāya (Collection of Middle-length Discourses)
3 Samyutta Nikāya (Collection of Kindred Sayings)
4 Anguttara Nikāya (Collection of Gradual Sayings)
5 Khuddaka Nikāya (Smaller Collection)

This fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:
1 Khuddaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)
2 Dhammapada (The Way of Truth)
3 Udāna (Paeans of Joy)
4 Itivuttaka (“Thus said” Discourses)
5 Sutta Nipāta (Collected Discourses)
6 Vimāna Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
7 Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas)
8 Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren)
9 Therigāthā (Psalms of the Sisters)
10 Jātaka (Birth Stories of the Bodhisatta)
11 Niddesa (Expositions)
12 Patisambhidā (Book on Analytical Knowledge)
13 Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)
14 Buddhavamsa (History of the Buddha)
15 Cariyā Pitaka (Modes of Conduct).

The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the most important and most interesting of the three containing as it does the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teaching in contrast to the simpler discourses in the Sutta Pitaka. Abhidhamma, the Higher Doctrine of the Buddha, expounds the quintessence of His profound teachings.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka is composed of the following seven works:
1 Dhammasangani (Classification of Dhamma)
2 Vibhanga (Divisions)
3 Dhātukathā (Discourse on Elements)
4 Puggala Paññatti (The Book on Individuals)
5 Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy)
6 Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)
7 Patthāna (The Book of Causal Relations)

The Four Noble Truths:
The teaching of the Four Noble Truths was quickly disseminated. The sooner the truths of his teachings are learned, the sooner one would understand his teachings and so could live a life free from sufferings. “Catunnam bhikkave dhammānam ananubodhā appativedhā evamidam dighamaddhānam sandhāvitam samsaritam mamañceva tuhmā kañca"
“Though not understanding, though not penetrating the Four Noble Truths, O Bikkhus That we have wandered on this long journey, you and I.”

The Buddha expounded the Four Noble Truths after he had realized these truths at the feet of the Bodhi tree in 6th century B.C. The Four Noble Truths constitute the central idea of his teaching. They are as follow:
(1) The Noble Truth of the Suffering,
(2) The Noble Truth of the cause of Suffering,
(3) The Noble Truth of the cessation of Suffering, and
(4)The Noble Truth of the Path leading to the cessation of Suffering,

The First Noble Truth:
What is the first noble truth? The first noble truth is very significant and must be correctly interpreted. The Pāli word “Dukkha” and its real meaning and interpretation must be understood. Generally the word “Dukkha" is translated as suffering. According to Daw Mya Tin:“We cannot yet find a single English word that can convey the real meaning of the word "Dukkha" used in the exposition of Four Noble Truths."

Dukkha means sufferings: physical or mental pain, misfortune, unsatisfied evil consequences etc., and rebirth in the lower planes of existences or in the lower strata of human society in the human world.
According to Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda-
“Dukkha contains not only ordinary meaning of suffering, but also includes deeper ideas such as imperfection, pain, impermanence, disharmony discomfort, irritation, awareness of incompleteness and insufficiency."

The inherent charateristics of the First Noble Truths are given in Pali sources. They involve: The characteristic of oppression (Pilanattha), the characteristic of producing causes of suffering (Sankhatattho), incessantly burning heat or fire (Santapattho) and the characteristic of change in the form of suffering (Viparinamattho).

As all casually conditioned physical and mental phenomena have about four characteristics, so all these constitute the Dukkha Saccā, the first noble truth of Dukkha. The main characteristic of the first noble truth is oppression and the remaining three are its adjuncts. This oppression can be found in the following three ways: By the way of production (Sankhata); by way of incessantly burning (Santāpa) and by way of change (Viparināma).

Any casually conditioned phenomenon burdens any being that clings to it by the state of oppressing (Pilanattha) in the following manner; in the beginning; in the middle, and at the end. As we see beings are nothing but made of mind and matter. These are known as the five aggregates (Khandha). In dealing with this, Dhammapada says that “Nathikhandha samā dukkhā." There is no ill as (the burden of) Khandha (the five aggregates).

To attain the five aggregates of the Brahma world, and Deva world, one has to practise meditation for Jhāna (trance) and Samādhi (concentration) respectively in his previous existence. He has to perform the wholesome deeds in the present life. These endeavours to attain such states are the heavy burdens of the five aggregates in the beginning. In the case of human beings too, the mental & physical phenomena in their five aggregates always burden them in one of three ways once the beings enter the bodies of Brahma and Deva planes. In the case of Brahma, the superiority concept of "I am" "I am” arise; and other evils; such as eternalist theory, anihilationalist theory intoxication with sensual pleasure in the Brahma planes are burdening them by way of continuously burning in the middle. The Brahama's life span is so long so that they think that we will last long forever without changing our lives. They also think that there will be no more life for them. These two kinds of thought are not free from extreme.

In the case of Deva, the great fire passions arise from the body and burn the Deva throughout his life. This is how Devas are burdened by way of continuously burning in the middle. The burdens for human beings in the round of life cycle are varied and heavy. The body of human beings burdens them in a manner of burning continuously. The five groups of aggregates belong to Brahma, Deva and men continuously burden till the end of Samsara. This is called purely Dukkha Saccā. This is a realistic way of looking at life but not a pessimistic view; it is a realization of truth of Dukkha Sacca when one proceeds to analyze the cause of Dukkha.

Scholars will ever argue and speculate. These are not recent questions of today or yesterday; they were raised in the time of Buddha. Even Sakuludāyi, the wanderer, for instance, asked about the past and the future and the Buddha reply was categorical.

“Apica Udāyi titthatu pubbanto titthatu aparanto Dhammam te desessāmi imasmin sati idam hoti imassupādā idam uppajjati imasmin asati idam na hoti imassa nirodhā idam nirujjhati” “Let be the past, let be the future, I will teach you Dhamma. When this is, that comes to be, with the arising of this that arises, when this is not, that does not come to be, with the cessation of this that ceases."

This, in a nutshell, is the Buddhist doctrine of condition, and forms the foundation of the four noble truths, the central concept of Buddhism. The venerable Assaji addressed Upatissa, a single verse that embraces the Buddha's entire doctrine of causality-
“Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā, tesam hetum tathāgato āha,
Te sañcaya yo nirodhoti, evamvādi mahāsamano."
“Whatever form a cause proceeds these as the Tathāgata has explained the cause, its cessation too he has explained. This is the teaching of the supreme sage." It includes the second noble truth and the third noble truth.

The Second Noble Truth:
The second one is the noble truth of the cause of Dukkha, what is the cause of Dukkha is craving. Unless we remove the craving through the practice of meditation we cannot overcome the ocean of rebirth. It is said in Dhammapada that-
“Piyato jāyate soko, piyato jāyate bhayam
Piyato vippamuttassa, natthisoko kuto bhayam"
Craving begets sorrow; craving begets fear. For him who is free from craving, there is no sorrow how can there be fear for him. The same as the first noble truth, in the second one, we find the four noble truths as characterized below-
“Dukkha samudayassa āyuhanattho
Nidānattho samyogattho palibodhattho”
“The characteristic of accumulating what would cause suffering (Ayuhanatta); the characteristic of constantly supplying or becoming a constant source of supply of suffering (Nidānatta); the characteristic of causing union or association with suffering (Samyogattha) and the characteristic of obstructing being an obstruct or impediment to free from suffering."

Here craving means the lust of the flesh (Kāmatahnā), the lust of life (Bhavatahnā), and the love for the present world (vibhavatannā). It is a fire, which burns in all beings; every activity is motivated by desire. It is a powerful-means of force present in all forms of life, and is the chief cause of the ills in life. It is the craving that leads to repeated births in the cycle of existence.

Craving leads to ignorance. It doesn’t seek the things as they really are, or it fails to understand the reality of experience and life. Under the delusion of self and not realizing Anatta (non-self), a person clings to things, which are impermanent, changeable, and perishable. It is said that it is the desire for what belongs to the unreal self that generates suffering for it is impermanent, changeable, perishable and that in the object of desire causes disappointment, disillusionment and other forms of suffering to him who desire.

Here, the question may come why the teaching of the Buddha repeatedly refers to craving, and why not the hatred is mentioned in the second noble truth? The answer for that question is the craving for existence is the only foremost cause of becoming of all beings here and hereafter. R.S. Lopleston says - “All desire says the second truth, leads to renewed existence. It leads from birth to birth; it tends to perpetuate the series."

Finally, it should be definitely understood that craving is the origin of all sorts of suffering in the lives of all beings, throughout all of their existences. Thus the first two noble truths are considered to be the interaction between the two as cause and effect.

The Third Noble Truth:
The third truth is the Noble Truth of cessation of Dukkha. It states that these laminations of desire will remove the cause of man-made suffering; for Tahnā is the force, which keeps us in the realm of Samsāra, over which Dukkha holds away. Actually, the third one is unconditioned known as Nibbāna. It is described in Dhammapada that “Paviveka rasam pitvā rasāupasamassaca Niddaro hoti nippāpo dhammapiti rasampitvā." “Having had the taste of solitude and the taste of perfect peace of Nibbāna, one who drinks in the joy of the essence of Dhamma is free from fear and evil”. According to Christmas Humphrey: “For one description of Nirvana is the dying out of the three fires of Lobha, Dosa and Moha, greed, hatred and illusion." Nobody can realize the Nibbāna experience unless one goes through the practice of insight mortification. Nibbāna is beyond intellectual, rational, philosophical knowledge. Therefore, unless one trains ones minds through the practice of meditation and destroys the desire, hatred and illusion, no one can understand in-depth the meaning of the truth. Nibbāna is a state, which is free from suffering and rounds of rebirth.

This is a state, which is not subjected to the laws of birth, decay and death. This state is so sublime that no human language can express it. Nibbāna is uniform, unoriginated, uncreated and unformed. It is beyond logic and reasoning. To understand this third noble truth one must follow the Eightfold Path. Hence, it is necessary to develop spiritual understanding, which will enable to realize this Third Noble Truth.

The Fourth Noble Truth:
The final one is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the cessation of Dukkha. This is known as the "Middle Path" (Majjima-patipadā) because it avoids two extremes: One extreme being the search for happiness through the pleasure of the senses, which is low, common, and unprofitable and the other being the search for happiness through self-mortification in different from the asceticism, which is "painful unworthy and unprofitable."

In “Buddhism in a Nutshell”, the eightfold noble path is described as follow, independent course, avoiding the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. The former retards one’s spiritual progress, and the later weakens one’s intellect.” Having himself first tried these two extremes, and having found them to be useless, the Buddha discovered through personal experience the Middle Path which gives vision and knowledge, which leads to calm Insight, Enlightenment Nibbāna. The Middle Path is generally known as the Noble Eightfold Path, because it is composed of eight categories or divisions: namely,
1. Right Understanding (Sammāditthi)
2. Right Thought (Sammāsankappa)
3. Right Speech (Sammāvācā)
4. Right Action (Sammākammanta)
5. Right Livelihood (Sammāājiva)
6. Right effort (Sammāvāyāma)
7. Right Mindfulness (Sammāsati)
8. Right Concentration (Sammāsamādhi)

According to Dr. K. Sri Dhammānanda, “This path is unique to Buddhism and distinguishes it from every other religion and philosophy. It is the Buddhist code of mental and physical conduct which leads to the end of suffering, sorrow and despair, to perfect peace, Nibbāna"

Dr. W. Rãhula states “Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during 45 years, deals in some way or other with this path. He explained it in different ways and in different words of those many thousand discourses scattered in the Buddhist scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path."

The Noble Eightfold path is sub-divided into three groups: Ethical conduct (Sila) comprised by Right speech, Right action and Right livelihood; mental Discipline (Samādhi) formed by Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right concentration; wisdom (Paññā) constituted by Right Understanding and Right Thought.

Ethical conduct (Sila) -Right Speech:
Refraining from telling lies (Musāvādavirati) ; back biting and calumny (Pisunavācāvirati) ; using abusive language, harsh words, hurtful speech to others (Pharusavācāvirati) and frivolous talk (Samphapplāpa) such as telling legends and fables or which is fruitless for this world and next known as Right Speech.

Right Action:
Refraining from killing and injuring living beings (Pānātipātavirati) , taking property which is not given (Adinnādānavirati) and taking intoxicant and from unlawful sexual intercourse with those who are still in the care of parents or guardians is called Right Action.


Right Livelihood:
There are four kinds of Right livelihood, they are:
1. In the case of laity, refraining from wrong livelihood by means of immoral physical and verbal action. (Duccaritamicchājivavirati).
2. In the case of monks and hermits, refraining from wrong livelihood, e.g., by means of giving fruits and flowers to the laymen to carry favor (Anesanamicchājivavirati).
3. In the case of Monks and hermits, refraining from trickery and deception by means of working wanders (Kuhanādimicchājivavirati).
4. In the case of monks and hermits refraining from wrong livelihood, e.g., by means of performing base arts such as reading signs and omens, which are against the rule and practice of the order. These three factors of the Eightfold path constitute Ethical conduct. It should be realized that the Buddhist ethical and moral conducts aims at promoting a happy and harmonious life both for the individual and for society. This moral conduct is considered as the indispensable foundation for all higher spiritual attainments. No spiritual development is possible without this moral basis.

Moral Conduct (Samādhi) -Right Effort:
The four kinds of right effort are:
1. Making effort in the practice of the middle path so that those vices that have never arisen during the present existence may not arise for a moment in future existence.
2. Making effort in the practice of the middle path so that those vices that have already arisen or are arising during the present existence may be dispelled and may not arise even for a moment in future existence.
3. Making effort the practice of the middle path so that thirty-seven factors, pertaining to Enlightenment that has never arisen during the present existence may arise here and now.
4. Putting forth effort in the practice of the Middle path so that the virtues, such as morality, that have already arisen and are arising during the present existence may develop unceasingly until the attainment of Anupādisesa Nibbāna.

Right Mindfulness:
Application of mindfulness to the contemplation of the Body-group, such as in-breathing and out-breathing; of the Feeling-group, such as painful and pleasurable feelings; of the consciousness group such as consciousness rooted in lust (Sarāga) or in anger (Sadosa) or in delusion (Samoha) etc., and of the Mind-object, such as sensuous lust (kāmacchanda), these are called Right Mindfulness.

Right Concentration:
It is concentration of the first of fourth Jhāna (trance) produced by fixing one's attention on one of the objects of Samatha tranquil ling such as kasina. Thus, the mind is trained, developed, and disciplined through Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

Wisdom (Paññā) - Right Understanding:
According to Buddhism, there are two sorts of understandings: what we generally call understanding is knowledge, an accumulated memory, and intellectual grasping of a subject according to certain given data. This is called “knowing accordingly" (Anubodha). It is not very deep, real deep understanding is called "penetration (Pativedha), seeing a thing in its true nature, without name and label. This penetration is possible only when the mind is free from all impurities and fully developed through mediation. Understanding of the ten kinds of subjects and its result and four noble truths are included in right understanding. Bodhi, Bhikkhu says that “The Buddha himself says that he sees no single factor so responsible for the arising of unwholesome states of mind as wrong view, and no factor so helpful the arising of wholesome states of mind as right view” Majjhima Nikāya mentions that “When a noble disciple understands what is kammically unwholesome and the root of unwholesome kamma, what is kammically wholesome and the root of wholesome kamma, then he has right view.”



Right Thought:
There are three kinds of thoughts they are:
1. Right thought free from greed and sensuous desire aiming at an escape from the round of rebirth (Nekkhammasankappa). According to Bodhi Bhikkhu, he says, “Desire is to be abandoned not because it is morally evil but because it is the root of suffering. Thus, renunciation, turning away from craving and its drive for gratification becomes the key to happiness to freedom from the ill of all.”
2. Right thought for the welfare of all living beings. (Avyāpādasamkappa);
3. Right thought for the non-injury of all living beings (Avihimsasankappa).

It is not necessary to practice one after the other in the numerical order as given in the lists. But they are to be developed more or less simultaneously as far as possible according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked together and each helps to captivate the other.

With regard to the Four Noble Truths we have four functions to perform: For the first noble truth, our function is to understand it as a fact, clearly and completely (Parinneyya); for the second, our function is to discard it, to eliminate, to destroy and to eradicate it (Pahātabba); for third, our function is to realize it (Sacchikātabba); for fouth, the final one our job is to follow it and stick to it (Bhāvetabba).

(1) 4. A Summary of what I have done
The title of my thesis is A Study of Buddhism in Burma
(3rd Centuary BC to 13th Centuary A.D.)
It is mainly divided into seven chapters. Out of seven Chapters, the first chapter is “Introduction” and it is subdivided into five titles.
In the first title, briefly I mention the “Geography of Burma” with brief presentation of climate of Burma and then the second title is arranged in the subject of the “History of Burma”.
In this regard, I orderly present the situations of historical succession, from by the mid- 900s BC to 1989 AD, as to how, early migration of three tribes (the tribe of Mon, Tibeto-Burma speaking Pyu, and Tibeto-Burman speaking Burmans or the Bamar) to Ayeyarwady Valley, warfare among tribes regarding invasion to the land, etc.
The third title is “What is Buddhism”. In this title, I emphasize on the Four Noble Truth and the Noble Eightfold Path not only because these two teachings are vital essences of Buddhism and but also because these enable to point out the path or way the final liberation or happiness for those who want to come to the end of suffering.
The fourth one is “A summary of what I have done” (i.e., this title), and the title of Research Methodology and Sources comes into the final arrangement of the chapter (I). In that case, I present completely how and why I attempt my research work.
The second chapter is “The Spread of Buddhism in Burma”. In this chapter, I pointed out the background religious history regarding the introducing of Buddhism to Burma (Myanmar): the first one is the history of Tapussa and Ballika, two merchants from Ukkalæ(Yangon in lower Burma), who met the Buddha at the foot of the Rajayatana Tree in the seven week after His Enlightenment, the second one is the story of So¼a and Uttara who also introduced Buddhism to the Suvarnabhumi(Thaton) around 228 BC, the final one is of Anawrahta who brought about Buddhism from the Thaton to Bagan (central Burma) in 11th Century A.D. etc.
The third chapter is the “Buddhist Literature in Burma” which consists of the explanations regarding what the Buddhist Literature was firstly brought into Burma by Sona and Uttara ( Asoka’s Missionaries to Burma) in 3rd Century B C, and, what it was carried by Anawrahta from Thaton to Pagan in 11th Century A.D. Then, I covered this chapter with how Buddhist literatures were compiled by the subsequent Buddhist scholars during this period.
The fourth chapter is “Buddhist Monuments in Burma”. In this chapter, I presented three types of monuments which located in the town of Pagan, Nyaung-oo, Myinkaba, Thiripyitsaya, Minnanthu and Pwasaw: the monuments of Pagoda (Stupa), the monuments of Temple, and the monuments of Image.
The fifth chapter is the “Buddhist Sculpture in Burma” and under this chapter; I mentioned the stone and bronze images of the Buddha with several gestures (mudra) which are representing to the many religious significances, such as, the preaching of the First Sermon in the Deer Park. Apart from the image of the Buddha, I depicted the pagoda or temple which also has other Reminders of the Buddha. Among these are the terracotta plaques found in some pagoda and temples. They had a didactic as well as a decorative function and take the place of the reliefs which are found in such temples as the Borobudur.
The sixth chapter is “Various Buddhist Schools in Burma”. It was attempted to mention about the Buddhist schism which occurred during the reign of the king Narapatisithu in 12th Century A.D.
The seventh chapter is the “Conclusion” which was covered with the salient and remarkable accounts to all respective chapters.
(1) 5. Research Methodology and Sources:
Research Methodology: In the modern age research has acquired a special place. Last twenty years, methodology awareness is increasing day by day. The traditional and modern method is always used to find out issues and analyze them on the basis of available standard primary and secondary sources, documents, literature books, articles and newspapers. All the chapters will be based on historical and social line and often inter linked with the interdisciplinary analytical methods to meet a detailed plan of how the goals of research will achieved.
Sources: The account of Buddhism in Burma and its literature are found in Pali and Sanskrit texts and also in the literatures of China, Tibet, Myanmar, India, Sri Lanka, etc. Myanmar literatures are the most reliable and oldest sources for the account of Buddhism in Burma and its significant books. According to the Myanmar literatures and Pali sources, the entire work of history of the Buddha was rehearsed and unanimously accepted and then complied at the Buddhism in Burma.
The sources are divided into two parts: primary and secondary sources. Original Pali text such as Buddhavamsa will be consulted as the primary sources. As the secondary sources, various significant books such as translation of Pali and other history books written by modern scholars will be used in this work. Especially, the reference of original sources used in this work will follow by Myanmar literature Edition.

Shin Sukha(Minhla)